Chapter 1: The Sociological Perspective

Table of Contents

1. Putting Social Life Into Perspective
2. The Development Of Sociological Thinking
3. The Development Of Sociology In North America
4. Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives

I. Putting Social Life Into Perspective

1. Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social interaction.
   1. Sociologists use theoretical perspectives and research methods to systematically examine social behaviour.
      
      
   2. Sociology provides important insights on pressing social issues–such as sexual assault, suicide, and homelessness–in contemporary societies. According to sociologist Joel M. Charon (1995:171), "Sociology has always attracted scholars driven by a desire to make sense of misery and to bring justice to the world."
      
      
2. Why Study Sociology?
   1. Sociology helps us see the complex connections between our own lives and the larger, recurring patterns of the society and world in which we live.
      1. A society is a large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.
         
         
      2. When we examine the world order, we become aware of global interdependence–a relationship in which the lives of all people are intertwined closely and any one nation's problems are part of a larger global problem.
         
         
   2. Sociological research often reveals the limitations of myths associated with commonsense knowledge that guides ordinary conduct in everyday life.
      
      
   3. While some sociologists argue that sociology must be completely objective, others do not think that total objectivity is an attainable or desirable goal when studying human behaviour.

4. While the "pop" sociology of the mass media tends to present events in isolation–as individual and often bizarre occurrences–sociologists attempt to discover patterns or commonalties in human behaviour. In studying suicide, for example, sociologists look for recurring patterns of behaviour even though individuals are involved in the actions.

3. The Sociological Imagination
   1. According to sociologist C. Wright Mills, the sociological imagination–the ability to see the relationship between individual experience and the larger society–enables us to distinguish between personal troubles and public issues.
      
      
   2. Social issues–such as unemployment, rape, suicide, and homelessness–often are seen as personal troubles; however, there are no private solutions for these problems.
      
      
   3. Developing a "personal" sociological imagination requires that we take into account perspectives of people from diverse backgrounds. Increasingly, it also requires taking a global perspective, identifying the relationship and connection between developed nations and developing nations.
      1. People in Canada differ by race (a term used by many people to specify groups of people distinguished by physical characteristics such as skin colour) and ethnicity (the cultural heritage or identity of a group, based on factors such as language or country of origin).
         
         
      2. They also differ by >class (the relative location of a person or group within a larger society, based on wealth, power, prestige, or other valued resources) and by gender (the meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with sex differences).

4. The sociological imagination can help us understand the linkages between individual acts of suicide and broad patterns of suicide (Box 1.3).

II. The Development Of Sociological Thinking

1. Industrialization (the process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries) and urbanization (the process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than rural areas) contributed to the development of sociological thinking.
   
   
2. Some early social thinkers were concerned with social order and stability:
   1. Auguste Comte coined the term sociology and stressed the importance of positivism–a belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry.
      
      
   2. Harriet Martineau's most influential work was Society in America, in which she paid special attention to U.S. diversity based on race, class, and gender.
      
      
   3. Herbert Spencer used an evolutionary perspective to explain stability and change in societies. He coined the term "survival of the fittest"–the idea that those species of animals, including human beings, best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, while those poorly adapted die out.
      
      
   4. Disagreeing with many of Spencer's views, Emile Durkheim stressed that people are the product of their social environment.
      1. According to Durkheim, social facts–patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside any one individual–exert social control over each person.
         
         
      2. Durkheim also observed that a breakdown in traditional organization, values, and authority results in a dramatic increase in anomie–a condition in which social control becomes ineffective as a result of the loss of shared values and of a sense of purpose in society.

3. Other early theorists had differing views on the status quo and stability versus change:
   1. While Durkheim emphasized social stability, Karl Marx believed that conflict–especially class conflict-is inevitable.
      1. Class conflict is the struggle between members of the capitalist class, or bourgeoisie, who own and control the means of production–the tools, land, factories, and money for investment that form the economic basis of a society–and members of the working class, or proletariat, who must sell their labour because they have no other means to earn a livelihood.
         
         
      2. Exploitation of workers by capitalists results in workers' alienation–a feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from oneself.

2. Although Max Weber acknowledged the importance of economic interests in shaping human action, he suggested that other factors–such as religion–also were directly related to social change.
   1. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber defined the role of religion as a central force in social change (e.g., the Protestant Reformation produced a social climate in which capitalism could exist and flourish).
      
      
3. Georg Simmel emphasized that society is best seen as a web of patterned interactions that make up the "geometry of social life."
   1. Interactions vary depending on the size of the group, including dyads (groups with two members) and triads (groups with three members). For example, a couple's interactions change somewhat with the birth of their first child.

2. Simmel analyzed the impact of industrialization and urbanization on people's everyday lives and found that a focus on individualism was increasing while concern for the group was diminishing.

III. The Development Of Sociology In North America

1. The first U.S. department of sociology was founded at the University of Chicago in 1892.
   1. Early scholars in the "Chicago School" included Robert E. Park.
      
      
   2. Although Jane Addams is best known as a social worker and the founder of Hull House, a settlement house in an impoverished area of Chicago, she also made important contributions to the field of sociology–namely, her text entitled Hull-House Maps and Papers was used by other Chicago sociologists for the next forty years.
      
      
2. W.E.B. Du Bois founded the second U.S. department of sociology at Atlanta University.
   1. Du Bois pointed out discrepancies between U.S. values such as democracy and equality and the realities of racism and group discrimination when he coined the term double-consciousness to describe the identity conflict experienced by African Americans as a result of being a black and an American.
      
      
   2. Out of his own frustration with the lack of progress in race relations in the United States, Du Bois helped found the NAACP.
      
      
3. The first sociology department in Canada was established in 1925 at McGill University with only two faculty members: Carl A. Dawson and Everett Hughes.
   1. Because Dawson was trained at the University of Chicago, this department continued to be heavily influenced by American sociology.

2. Although sociology courses were offered through the department of political economy, the University of Toronto was instrumental in the development of a distinct Canadian sociology. The works of Harold A. Innis and S.D. Clark laid the groundwork for the political economy perspective which is central to Canadian sociology.

IV. Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives

1. Contemporary sociologists view society from a variety of perspectives, each of which utilizes theory–a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events. Theories provide a framework or perspective–an overall approach or viewpoint toward some subject–for examining various aspects of social life. Three major theoretical perspectives have emerged in sociology: functionalism, conflict theory, and interactionism.

2. Functionalist perspectives are based on the assumption that society is a stable, orderly system characterized by societal consensus–a situation in which the majority of members share a common set of values, beliefs, and behavioural expectations.

1. Societies develop social structures, or institutions, that persist because they play a part in helping society survive. These institutions include the family, education, government, religion, and economy. If anything adverse happens to one of these parts, all other parts are affected and the system no longer functions properly.
   
   
2. Talcott Parsons stressed that all societies must make provisions for meeting social needs in order to survive. For example, a division of labour (distinct, specialized functions) between husband and wife is essential for family stability and social order.
   1. The husband/father performs the instrumental tasks that involve leadership and decision-making responsibilities in the home, and employment outside the home in order to provide income for the family.
      
      
   2. The wife/mother is responsible for the expressive tasks, including housework, caring for the children, and providing emotional support for the entire family.
      
      
   3. Although Parsons's analysis has been criticized for its conservative bias, his work still influences sociological thinking about gender roles and the family.
      
      
3. Robert K. Merton distinguished between intended and unintended functions of social institutions.
   1. Manifest functions are intended and/or overtly recognized by the participants in a social unit (e.g., manifest function of religion is answering "unanswerable" questions about life–"Why am I here?"–and death–"What happens when I die?").
      
      
   2. Latent functions are unintended functions that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants (e.g., religious groups may provide important business and social contacts for participants).
      
      
   3. Dysfunctions are the undesirable consequences of any element of society (e.g., a dysfunction of religion may be the perpetuation of gender, racial, and class inequalities).
      
      
4. Although the functionalist perspective provides important insights on the functions (and dysfunctions) of major social institutions, it also has been criticized for its tendency to legitimize the status quo without effectively examining conflict and social change.

3. According to conflict perspectives, groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources.
   1. Along with Karl Marx, Max Weber believed that economic conditions were important in producing inequality and conflict in society; however, Weber also suggested that power and prestige are other sources of inequality.
      1. Power is the ability of a person within a social relationship to carry out his or her own will despite resistance from others.
         
         
      2. Prestige is a positive or negative social estimation of honour.
         
         
   2. Ralf Dahrendorf observed that conflict is inherent in all authority relationships; people in positions of authority benefit from the conformity of others; those who are forced to conform feel resentment and demonstrate resistance. The advantaged group attempts to preserve the status quo–the existing set of social arrangements-and may use coercion to do so.
      
      
   3. C. Wright Mills believed that the most important decisions in the United States are made largely behind the scenes by the power elite-a small clique composed of the top corporate, political, and military officials-that we will discuss later in the course.
      
      
4. The conflict perspective is not one unified theory but rather encompasses several branches. A central branch includes feminist perspectives, which focus on gender.
   1. According to feminists (including many men as well as women), patriarchy is a system in which men dominate women, and that which is considered masculine is more highly valued than that which is considered feminine.
      
      
   2. Feminist perspectives assume that gender is socially created and reinforced through social learning. Feminism is not one single, unified approach; we will look at several feminist approaches when we discuss "Sex and Gender" in Chapter 11.
      
      
5. Functionalist and conflict perspectives focus primarily on macrolevel analysis-an examination of whole societies, large-scale social structures, and social systems. By contrast, interactionist approaches are based on a microlevel analysis-an examination of everyday interactions in small groups rather than large-scale social structures.

6. Interactionist perspectives are based on the assumption that society is the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups.
   1. George Herbert Mead, a founder of this perspective, emphasized that the ability to communicate in symbols is the key feature distinguishing humans from other animals.
      1. A symbol is anything that meaningfully represents something else. Examples of symbols include signs, gestures, written language, and shared values.

2. Symbolic interaction occurs when people communicate through the use of symbols. For example, saluting (or burning) a nation's flag may be a sign of patriotism and loyalty (or contempt) for the country.
   
   
2. Some interactionists focus on people's behaviour, while others focus on the ways in which people impose their shared meanings on others.
   1. From this perspective, each person's interpretation or definition of a given situation becomes a subjective reality from that person's viewpoint.
      
      
   2. Individuals generally assume that their subjective reality is the same as that of others; however, this may be incorrect. To interact with others, we define the situation according to our own subjective reality.

3. Because interactionist perspectives focus on the microlevel of society, they help us see how individuals interact in their daily lives and interpret their experiences. However, this approach also has limitations: it largely ignores the larger social context in which behaviour takes place and the effects of socially imposed definitions of race-ethnicity, gender, class, and age on people's lives.

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