Chapter 4: Socialization

Table of Contents

1. Why Is Socialization Important Around The Globe?
2. Socialization And The Self
3. Agents Of Socialization
4. Gender Socialization
5. Socialization Through The Life Course
6. Resocialization
7. Socialization In The Future
   

I. Why Is Socialization Important Around The Globe?

1. Socialization is the lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society.
   
   
2. Human Development: Biology and Society
   1. Every human being is a product of biology, society, and personal experiences-that is, of heredity and environment.
      1. Sociology focuses on how humans design their own culture and transmit it from generation to generation through socialization.
         
         
      2. By contrast, sociobiology-the systematic study of how biology affects social behaviour-asserts that our genetic makeup is a major factor in shaping human behaviour.

2. With the exception of simple reflexes, such as dilation of the pupils and knee-jerk responses, virtually all human behaviour is influenced socially.

3. Social Isolation
   1. Social environment is a crucial part of an individual's socialization; people need social contact with others in order to develop properly.
      
      
   2. Researchers have attempted to demonstrate the effects of social isolation on nonhuman primates that are raised without contact with others of their own species (e.g., the Harlows' experiments with young rhesus monkeys).
      
      
   3. Stories of feral children-those assumed to have been raised by animals in the wilderness-have been of great interest (e.g., Victor, the "Wild Boy of Aveyron," who was never able to develop relationships with other people).
      
      
   4. Social scientists have documented the detrimental effects of extreme isolation on children's development (e.g., Anna and Genie).
      
      
4. Child Maltreatment
   1. As the most frequent form of child maltreatment, child neglect occurs when the basic needs of children are not met, regardless of cause.

2. Throughout history and across cultures, perceptions of what constitutes abuse or neglect have differed.

II. Socialization And The Self

1. Without social contact, we cannot form a self-concept-the totality of our beliefs and feelings about ourselves.
   
   
2. Sociological Theories of Human Development: Cooley and Mead
   1. According to Charles Horton Cooley's looking-glass self, a person's sense of self is derived from the perceptions of others. Self-concept is derived from a three-step process:
      1. We imagine how our personality and appearance will look to other people.
         
         
      2. We imagine how other people judge the appearance and personality that we think we present.

3. We develop a self-concept. If we think the evaluation of others is favourable, our self-concept is enhanced. If we think the image is unfavourable, our self-concept is diminished.

2. George Herbert Mead linked the idea of self-concept to role-taking-the process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person in order to understand the world from that person's point of view.
   1. Significant others are those persons whose care, affection, and approval are especially desired and who are most important in the development of the self; these individuals are extremely important in the socialization process.
      
      
   2. Mead divided the self into the I (the subjective element of the self that represents the spontaneous and unique traits of each person) and the me (the objective element of the self, which is composed of the internalized attitudes and demands of other members of society and the individual's awareness of those demands).

3. The I and the me take form during three stages of self development: (1) preparatory stage-children largely imitate the people around them; (2) play stage (from about age 3 to 5)-children learn to use language and other symbols, thus making it possible for them to pretend to take the roles of specific people; and (3) game stage-children understand not only their own social position but also the positions of others around them. At this time, the child develops a generalized other-an awareness of the demands and expectations of the society as a whole or of the child's subculture.

3. Self-Concept and Child Maltreatment
   1. A child's self-concept is defined and evaluated through interaction with significant others, who are assumed to have the best interest of the child in mind.
      
      
   2. From an interactionist perspective, child maltreatment can best be explained as the result of an interaction between the parent and child within a system that seldom provides alternative solutions.
      
      
4. Interactionist perspectives such as Cooley's and Mead's contribute to our understanding of how the self develops; however, these theories often do not take into account differences in people's experiences based on race/ethnicity, class, religion, gender, or other factors.
   
   
3. Psychological Theories of Human Development
   1. In his psychoanalytic perspective, Sigmund Freud divided the mind into three interrelated parts:
      1. The id is the component of personality that includes all of the individual's basic biological drives and needs that demand immediate gratification.
         
         
      2. The ego is the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restrictions on the innate pleasure-seeking drives of the id.
         
         
      3. The superego, or conscience, consists of the moral and ethical aspects of personality. When a person is well-adjusted, the ego successfully manages the opposing forces of the id and the superego.

4. Freud acknowledged the importance of socialization when he pointed out that people's biological drives may be controlled by the values and moral demands of society that are learned primarily during childhood; however, his theory has been heavily criticized for its unprovable assertions.

2. Drawing from Freud's theory, Erik H. Erikson identified eight psychosocial stages of development, each of which is accompanied by a crisis or potential crisis that involves transitions in social relationships:
   1. Trust versus mistrust (birth to age 1).
   2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1-3 years).
   3. Initiative versus guilt (3-5 years).
   4. Industry versus inferiority (6-11 years).
   5. Identity versus role confusion (12-18 years).
   6. Intimacy versus isolation (18-35 years).
   7. Generativity versus self-absorption (35-55 years).
   8. Integrity versus despair (maturity and old age).
      
      
3. Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development is based on the assumption that there are four stages of cognitive development based on how children understand the world around them. The stages are organized around specific tasks that, when mastered, lead to the acquisition of new mental capacities, which serve as the basis for the next level of development:
   1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)-children understand the world only though sensory contact and immediate action because they cannot engage in symbolic thought or use language.
      
      
   2. Preoperational stage (ages 2-7)-children begin to use words as mental symbols and to develop the ability to use mental images.
      
      
   3. Concrete operational stage (ages 7-11)-children think in terms of tangible objects and actual events; they also can draw conclusions about the likely physical consequences of an action without always having to try it out.
      
      
   4. Formal operational stage (age 12 through adolescence)-adolescents are able to engage in highly abstract thought and understand places, things, and events they have never seen. Beyond this point, changes in thinking are a matter of changes in degree rather than in the nature of their thinking.
      
      
4. Elaborating on Piaget's stages of development, Lawrence Kohlberg suggested these levels of moral development:
   1. Preconventional level (ages 7-10)-children give little consideration to the views of others.
      
      
   2. Conventional level (age 10 through adulthood)-children initially believe that behaviour is right if it receives wide approval from significant others, including peers, and then develop a law-and-order orientation, based on how one conforms to rules and laws.

3. Postconventional level (few adults reach this stage)-people view morality in terms of individual rights. At the final stage of moral development, moral conduct is judged by principles based on human rights that transcend government and laws.
   
   
5. Gender and Moral Development
   1. One of the major critics of Kohlberg's work was psychologist Carol Gilligan, who noted that Kohlberg's model was based solely on male responses.
      
      
   2. To correct this perceived oversight, Gilligan examined morality in women by interviewing twenty-eight pregnant women who were deciding whether to have an abortion.

3. From her research, Gilligan identified three stages in female moral development: (1) the woman is motivated primarily by selfish concerns ("This is what I want ... this is what I need."); (2) she increasingly recognizes her responsibility to others; and (3) the woman makes her decision based on her desire to do the greatest good for both herself and for others.

III. Agents Of Socialization

1. Agents of socialization are the persons, groups, or institutions that teach us what we need to know in order to participate in society.
   
   
2. The family is the most important agent of socialization in all societies.
   1. Functionalists emphasize that families are the primary locus for the procreation and socialization of children, as well as the primary source of emotional support.
      
      
   2. To a large extent, the family is where we acquire our specific social position in society. Studies show that families socialize their children somewhat differently based on race/ethnicity, gender, and class (e.g., Melvin Kohn's study of differences in socialization practices based on parental occupation).
      
      
   3. Conflict theorists stress that socialization reproduces the class structure in the next generation (e.g., poor and low-income families may unintentionally socialize children to believe that education goals and future ambitions are meaningless because of existing economic conditions in the family; middle- and upper-income families typically instill ideas of monetary and social success in children).
      
      
3. The school has played an increasingly important role in the socialization process as the amount of specialized technical and scientific knowledge has expanded rapidly.
   1. Schools teach specific knowledge and skills; they also have a profound effect on a child's self-image, beliefs, and values.
      
      
   2. From a functionalist perspective, schools are responsible for: (1) socialization, or teaching students to be productive members of society; (2) transmission of culture; (3) social control and personal development; and (4) the selection, training, and placement of individuals on different rungs in the society.
      
      
   3. According to conflict theorists such Stephen Richer, success in school may be based on students' ability to conform to a hidden curriculum-the process by which children learn to value competition, materialism, work over play, obedience to authority and attentiveness-attributes that are important for later roles in the work force.
      
      
4. A peer group is a group of people who are linked by common interests, equal social position, and (usually) similar age.
   1. Peer groups function as agents of socialization by contributing to our sense of belonging and our feelings of self-worth.
      
      
   2. Individuals must earn acceptance with their peers by meeting the group's demands for a high level of conformity to its own norms, attitudes, speech, and dress code.

5. The mass media is an agent of socialization that has a profound impact on both children and adults.
   1. The media function as socializing agents in several ways: (1) they inform us about events; (2) they introduce us to a wide variety of people; (3) they provide an array of viewpoints on current issues; (4) they make us aware of products and services that, if we purchase them, supposedly will help us to be accepted by others; and (5) they entertain us by providing the opportunity to live vicariously (through other people's experiences).

IV. Gender Socialization

Gender socialization is the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of being female or male in a specific group or society.

1. Gender socialization is important in determining what we think the preferred sex of a child should be and in influencing our beliefs about acceptable behaviours for males and females.
   
   
2. The relationship between gender socialization and social class is complex, and we also are limited in our knowledge about gender socialization practices across racial and ethnic groups because most studies have focused on white, middle-class families.
   
   
3. Schools, peer groups, and the media also contribute to our gender socialization.
   1. From kindergarten through college, teachers and peers reward gender-appropriate attitudes and behaviour.
      
      
   2. Sports reinforce traditional gender roles through a rigid division of events into male and female categories.
      
      
   3. The media also are a powerful source of gender socialization; from an early age, children's books, television programs, movies, and music provide subtle and not-so subtle messages about masculine and feminine behaviour.

V. Socialization Through The Life Course

1. Socialization is a lifelong process: each time we experience a change in status, we learn a new set of rules, roles, and relationships.
   1. Even before we enter a new status, we often participate in anticipatory socialization-the process by which knowledge and skills are learned for future roles.
      
      
   2. Canada does not have specific rites of passage based on age or other factors which publicly dramatize and validate changes in a person's status.
      
      
   3. The most common categories of age are infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood (often subdivided into young adulthood, middle adulthood, and older adulthood).
      
      
2. Infancy and Childhood
   1. During early childhood, family support and guidance are crucial to a child's developing self-concept. Families in which children are provided with emotional warmth, feelings of mutual trust, and a sense of security come closest to our ideal cultural beliefs about childhood.
      
      
   2. However, other families reflect the discrepancy between cultural ideals and reality-children grow up in a setting characterized by fear, danger, and risks that are created by parental neglect, emotional maltreatment, or premature economic and sexual demands.
      
      
3. Adolescence
   1. The adolescent (or teenage) years came into being during the twentieth century in industrialized societies as a buffer between childhood and adulthood.
      
      
   2. Anticipatory socialization for adult roles often is associated with adolescence; however, some young people may plunge into adult responsibilities at this time.
      
      
   3. Adolescence often is associated with emotional and social unrest as young people develop their own identities and sometimes find themselves in conflict with parents, teachers, and other authority figures who attempt to restrict their freedom.
4. Adulthood
   1. In early adulthood (usually until about age forty), people work toward their own goals of creating meaningful relationships with others, finding employment, and seeking personal fulfilment.
      
      
   2. Wilbert Moore divided workplace, or occupational, socialization into four phases: (1) career choice; (2) anticipatory socialization (learning different aspects of the position before entering it); (3) conditioning and commitment (learning the ups and downs of the occupation and remaining committed to it); and (4) continuous commitment (remaining committed to the work even when problems or other alternatives may arise).
      
      
   3. Between the ages of 40 and 60, people enter middle adulthood, and many begin to compare their accomplishments with their earlier expectations. This is the point at which people either believe they have reached their goals or have attained as much as they are likely to achieve.
   4. In older adulthood, some people are quite happy and content; others are not. Difficult changes in adult attitudes and behaviour may occur in the last years of life when people experience decreased physical ability and social devaluation-wherein a person or group is considered to have less social value than other groups.
      
      
5. It is important to note that not everyone goes through passages or stages of a life course at the same age and that life course patterns are strongly influenced by race, ethnicity, and social class, as well.

VI. Resocialization

1. Resocialization is the process of learning a new and different set of attitudes, values, and behaviours from those in one's previous background and experience.
   1. Voluntary resocialization occurs when we enter a new status of our own free will (e.g., medical or psychological treatment or religious conversion).
      
      
   2. Involuntary resocialization occurs against a person's wishes and generally takes place within a total institution-a place where people are isolated from the rest of society for a set period of time and come under the control of the officials who run the institution (e.g., military boot camps, prisons, concentration camps, and some mental hospitals).
      
      
   3. In total institutions, some residents or inmates may become institutionalized, meaning that they can no longer cope with the freedom found beyond the institution's walls.

VII. Socialization In The Future

1. Families are likely to remain the institution that most fundamentally shapes and nurtures personal values and self-identity.
   
   
2. However, parents increasingly may feel overburdened by this responsibility, especially without societal support-such as high-quality, affordable child care-and more education in parenting skills.
   
   
3. A central issue facing parents and teachers as they socialize children is the growing dominance of the media and other forms of technology.
   
   
4. In the twenty-first century, socialization must anticipate and consider the consequences of the future.

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