Chapter 17: Religion

Table of Contents

1. The Sociological Study Of Religion
2. Sociological Perspectives On Religion
3. World Religions
4. Types Of Religious Organizations
5. Trends In Religion In Canada
6. Education And Religion In The Twenty-First Century

I. The Sociological Study Of Religion

1. Religion is a system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals, based on some sacred or supernatural realm that guides human behaviour, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into a community.
   
   
2. Religion seeks to answer important questions such as why we exist, why people suffer and die, and what happens when we die.
   
   
3. Most sociologists studying religion are committed to the pursuit of "disinterested scholarship," meaning that they do not seek to make value judgments about religious beliefs.
   
   
1. Religion and the Meaning of Life
   1. Faith is an unquestioning belief that does not require proof or scientific evidence.
      
      
   2. Sacred and Profane
      1. According to Emile Durkheim, sacred refers to those aspects of life that are extraordinary or supernatural; those things that are set apart as "holy."
         
         
      2. Those things people do not set apart as sacred are referred to as profane-the everyday, secular, or "worldly" aspects of life.

3. In addition to beliefs, religion also comprises symbols and rituals-symbolic actions that represent religious meanings-that range from songs and prayers to offerings and sacrifices.
   
   
4. Religions have been classified into four main categories based on their dominant belief:
   1. In very simple, preindustrial societies, religion often takes the form of simple supernaturalism-the belief that supernatural forces affect people's lives either positively or negatively.
      
      
   2. Animism-the belief that plants, animals, or other elements of the natural world are endowed with spirits or life forces having an impact on events in society-is identified with early hunting and gathering societies and with many Native American societies.
      
      
   3. Theism is a belief in one or more god or gods.
      1. Horticultural societies were among the first to practise monotheism-a belief in a single, supreme being or god who is responsible for significant events such as the creation of the world (e.g., Christianity, Judaism, and Islam).
      2. Polytheism is a belief in more than one god (e.g., Hinduism, Buddhism, and Shinto).

4. Transcendent idealism-a belief in sacred principles of thought and conduct, such as truth, justice, life, and tolerance for others-is nontheistic because it does not focus on worship of a god or gods (e.g., Buddhism).

II. Sociological Perspectives On Religion

1. Functionalist Perspective on Religion
   1. According to Emile Durkheim, all religions share three common elements: (a) beliefs held by adherents; (b) practices (rituals) engaged in collectively by believers; and (c) a moral community that results from the group's shared beliefs and practices pertaining to the sacred.
      
      
   2. Religion has three important functions in any society:
      1. Providing meaning and purpose to life-religion offers meaning for the human experience, including some events that are difficult to accept (such as injustice, suffering, and the death of a loved one).
         
         
      2. Promoting social cohesion and a sense of belonging-religious teachings and practices are an important factor in social cohesion, through the use of shared symbolism.

3. Providing social control and support for the government-religion helps maintain social control by conferring supernatural legitimacy on the norms and laws in society. Civil religion is the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that make sacred the values of the society and place the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning.
   
   
2. Conflict Perspective on Religion
   1. From the conflict perspective, religion also tends to promote strife between groups and societies.
      
      
   2. According to Karl Marx, the capitalist class uses religious ideology as a tool of domination to mislead the workers about their true interests, thus religion is the "opiate of the masses."
      
      
   3. By contrast, Max Weber argued that religion could be a catalyst to produce social change.
      1. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber linked the teachings of John Calvin with the growth of capitalism.
         
         
      2. Calvin emphasized the doctrine of predestination-the belief that all people are divided into two groups (the saved and the damned)-and only God knows who will go to heaven (the elect) and who will go to hell, even before they are born.
         
         
      3. Because people cannot know whether they will be saved, they look for signs that they are among the elect. As a result, people work hard, save their money, and do not spend it on worldly frivolity; instead, they reinvest it in their land, equipment, and labour.
         
         
      4. As people worked ever harder to prove their religious piety, structural conditions became right in Europe for the Industrial Revolution, free markets, and the commercialization of the economy, which worked hand-in-hand with their religious teachings.

4. From a conflict perspective, religion tends to promote conflict between groups and societies, between religious groups, within a religious group, and between a religious group and the larger society.
   
   
3. Interactionist Perspective on Religion
   1. Religion as a Reference Group. For many people, religion serves as a reference group to help them define themselves. Religious symbols, for example, have a meaning to large bodies of people (e.g., the Star of David for Jews; the crescent moon and star for Muslims; and the cross for Christians).
      
      
   2. Her Religion and His Religion. Not all people interpret religion in the same way. Women and men may belong to the same religions, but their individual religion will not necessarily be a carbon copy of the group's entire system of beliefs.
      1. Women's versions of a certain religion are probably very different from men's versions; a woman may focus on those aspects of the group's worldview that speak to her social situation.
         
         
      2. In virtually all religions, women have much less influence in establishing social definitions of appropriate gender roles both within the religious community and outside in the larger community.

III. World Religions

1. Hinduism
   1. Hinduism originated along the banks of the Indus River in Pakistan between 3500 and 4500 years ago. There are approximately 700 million Hindus in the world today, with 90 percent of them living in India.
      
      
   2. Hinduism is a polytheistic religion-its adherents believe that there are many gods.
      
      
   3. Since Hinduism is based on the assumption that there are many paths to the "Truth," it has been devoid of some of the social conflict experienced by other religions. Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi is a prime example of the nonviolent, honest, courageous Hindu.

2. Buddhism
   1. Buddhism emerged approximately 2500 years ago in India. It is practised now primarily in Southeast Asia.
      
      
   2. Buddha means "Enlightened One" or "Awakened One." Buddhists focus on the life of the Buddha and seek to follow his teachings.

3. The religion is based on meditation and adherence to the Four Noble Truths (p. 554).
   
   
3. Confucianism
   1. Confucianism means the "family of scholars."
      
      
   2. Confucius, the figure around which the religion operates, encouraged people to learn the importance of order in human relationships and follow a strict code of moral conduct, including respect for others, benevolence, and reciprocity.
      
      
   3. Confucianism is prone to generate conflict. The Five Constant Relationships: ruler-subject, husband-wife, elder brother-younger brother, elder friend-junior friend, and father-son. In each of these pairs, one peson is unequal to the other, and both are expected to carry out specific responsibilities.
      
      
   4. Until the Communist takeover and establishment of the People's Republic of China, Confucianism was the official religion of China. However, it remains an influence in several East Asian countries.
      
      
4. Judaism
   1. There are an estimated 18 million Jews, residing in about 134 countries worldwide.
      
      
   2. Judaism is a monotheistic religion, based on three key components: Torah (God's teachings), God (the deity), and Israel (the community or holy nation).

3. Today, Judaism has three main branches-Orthodox, Reform, and Conservative.
   
   
5. Islam
   1. Followers of Islam are known as Muslims. Today, approximately 19 percent of the world's population is Muslim; most of the religion's adherents live in the Middle East.
      
      
   2. The teachings of its founder, Muhammad, are based in the Qur'an.

3. The Qur'an encourages followers to adhere to the five Pillars of Islam: (1) believing that there is no god but Allah, (2) participating in five periods of prayer each day, (3) paying taxes to help support the needy, (4) fasting during the daylight hours in the month of Ramadan, and (5) making at least one pilgrimage to the Sacred House of Allah in Mecca.

6. Christianity
   1. The central themes in the teachings of Jesus are the kingdom of God and standards of personal conduct. Jesus emphasized the importance of righteousness before God and of praying to the Supreme Being for guidance in the daily affairs of life.
      
      
   2. Almost one-third of the world's population (1.5 to 2 billion) refer to themselves as Christians, the majority of which live in North or South America or in Europe.
      
      
   3. Some critics suggest that Christianity became a dominant religion not because of its theology, but due to its alliance with the Western powers.

IV. Types Of Religious Organizations

1. Some countries have an official or state religion known as an ecclesia-a religious organization that is so integrated into the dominant culture that it claims as its membership all members of a society.
   1. Membership occurs as a result of being born into the society, rather than by conscious decision on the part of individual members.
      
      
   2. The linkages between the social institutions of religion and government often are very strong in such societies (e.g., the Anglican Church [the official Church of England]; the Lutheran Church in Sweden and Denmark; the Catholic Church in Spain; and Islam in Iran and Pakistan).
      
      
2. The Church-Sect Typology
   1. A church is a large, bureaucratically organized religious organization that tends to seek accommodation with the larger society in order to maintain some degree of control over it.
      1. Church membership largely is based on birth; children of church members typically are baptized as infants and become lifelong members of the church. Older children and adults may choose to join the church but are required go through an extensive training program that culminates in a confirmation or bar mitzvah ceremony.
         
         
      2. Leadership is hierarchically arranged, clergy generally have many years of formal education, and churches have very restrained services that appeal to the intellect rather than the emotions.
         
         
   2. Midway between the church and the sect is a denomination-a large organized religion characterized by accommodation to society but frequently lacking in ability or intention to dominate society.
      1. Denominations have a trained ministry, and while involvement by lay members is encouraged more than in the church, their participation is usually limited to particular activities, such as readings or prayers.

2. This form of organization is most likely to thrive in societies characterized by religious pluralism, a situation in which many religious groups exist because they have a special appeal to specific segments of the population. Perhaps because of its diversity, the United States has more denominations than any other nation.
   
   
3. A sect is a relatively small religious group that has broken away from another religious organization to renew what it views as the original version of the faith.
   1. Unlike churches, sects offer members a more personal religion and an intimate relationship with a supreme being, depicted as taking an active interest in the individual's everyday life.
      
      
   2. Whereas churches typically appeal to members of the upper classes, and denominations focus on the middle- and upper-middle classes, sects seek to meet the needs of people who are low in the stratification system.

3. According to the church-sect typology, as members of a sect become more successful economically and socially, their religious organization also is likely to shift in emphasis away from the next world to focus more on this world.
   
   
3. A cult is a religious group with practices and teachings outside the dominant cultural and religious traditions of a society.
   1. Some major religions (including Judaism, Islam, and Christianity) and some denominations (such as the Mormons) started as cults.
      
      
   2. Cult leadership is based on the charismatic characteristics of the individual, including an unusual ability to form attachments with others (e.g., the Reverend Sun Myung Moon of the Unification Church, or "Moonies").
      
      
   3. Over time, some cults undergo transformation into sects or denominations (e.g., the Christian Science church).

V. Trends In Religion In Canada

1. Canada has a great variety of religions. Catholics, at 46 percent of the population, are the largest religious group in Canada.
   
   
2. Religion and Scientific Explanation
   1. During the Industrial Revolution, rapid growth in scientific and technological knowledge gave rise to the idea that science ultimately would answer questions that previously had been in the realm of religion.
      
      
3. Religiosity
   1. Is Canada a religious society? The answer depends on how you look at things. Some research shows that church attendance, public confidence in church leadership, and church influence have all gradually declined since the end of the Second World War. On the other hand, a poll suggests that Canada is overwhelmingly Christian in belief. People are not rejecting religion, they are rejecting the way religion is practised.

2. Many Canadians have rejected traditional religions, but have become involved in the "new spirituality."
   
   
4. Why Have Canadians Turned Away from the Church?
   1. Canadians have become more individualistic, and are less likely to accept without question the dictates of the church.
      
      
   2. Debates over the status of homosexuals and homosexuality have led to divisions within the church.
      
      
   3. The church has struggled to remain socially relevant in contemporary Canadian society by engaging directly in matters of social justice.
      
      
   4. Many women have felt marginalized by the church. While the role of women in Canadian society has changed dramatically over the past thirty years, some churches are still very patriarchal organizations.
      
      
   5. The image of the church has also suffered from thousands of charges of child sexual abuse by ministers and priests.
      
      
5. Fundamentalism
   1. The rise of a new fundamentalism has occurred at the same time that a number of mainline denominations have been losing membership.

2. Religious fundamentalism refers to a conservative religious doctrine that opposes intellectualism and worldly accommodation in favour of restoring a traditional otherworldly focus.
   
   
6. Does Religion Make a Difference?
   1. Some sociologists suggest that religiosity has little consequence on personal characteristics such as happiness and contentment. Moreover, there appears to be no difference between the religious and nonreligious in terms of tolerance and compassion.
      
      
   2. However, sociologists have discovered a link between religiosity and marriage longevity, and life generally.
      
      
7. Women in the Ministry
   1. Religion has often excluded women. Christianity and Judaism are male-oriented, and women do not play significant roles within religious institutions.

2. The future of religion will depend significantly on the ability of religious institutions to respond to the changing role of women in society.

VI. Education And Religion In The Twenty-First Century

1. Education will remain an important social institution as we enter the twenty-first century. Also remaining, however, will be the controversies over what should be taught and how to raise levels of academic achievement.
   
   
2. Religious organizations also will continue to be important in the lives of many people. Moreover, the influence of religious beliefs and values will be felt even by those who claim no religious beliefs of their own. In many nations, the rise of religious nationalism has led to the blending of strongly held religious and political beliefs.
   
   
3. Maintaining an appropriate balance between the social institutions of education and religion will be an important challenge for Canada in the twenty-first century.

Back to Chapter Resources